Red: where did you come from, where did you go?

RED

All throughout history, red has been the center of attention as it has been sought after due to its rarity up until the 17th century where it became a controversial color during the Protestant Reformation. However, even after the disputes concerning red, it began to rise in prominence again, generally in the form of makeup and adornments that were used to enhance the appearance of women. The origin story of red consists of many different processes to produce the pigment. There was no one particular way to create red pigment, however certain substances and processes produced a richer, more vibrant red than others. Cochineal and cinnabar were both substances that produced the vibrant form of red that was sought after by European nobility and symbolized wealth and power of the patron who commissioned the art that used either substance. Red created a delineation between the higher and lower spectrums of society because only wealthy people could afford red dye and red pigment for painting and dying cloth before red could be artificially created at cheaper prices. Red represents many different aspects of the human experience and connotes the various levels of society that existed throughout history.

CINNABAR

Ever since the 1st century BC, cinnabar has been used for the vibrant red color that it produces when ground up. The stone was mined in Spain and then exported to Europe and Egypt where it was used heavily in paintings and decor. For example, the Villa of the Mysteries by Dionysiac Frieze excavated in Pompeii used cinnabar as the red pigment and colored the wall through a complex process to make the pigment fuse with plaster and stay put on the wall (Paul, 44).

Villa of the Mysteries, Dionysiac Frieze, 60-50 BC

The substance was costly and also came at a high price for those who mined it because it contains mercury, creating even more exclusivity to the pigment. The people who mined cinnabar were generally slaves because they were forced into the industry since mining it essentially meant a closer death sentence. Not only did Europeans use cinnabar, but also Egyptians used the substance to color their paintings, as well (Paul, 50). Of course, as in Europe, only high-status Egyptians could use cinnabar in their decorations and paintings because of the high cost and symbolism to wealth and power. Just as red became prominent in art, it also increased in the makeup industry. For example, 18th century nobility in Europe would not only color their faces with white lead, but also added cinnabar-based makeup to their cheeks as rouge, which although very dangerous, represented their status as nobility because it separated them from peasants who worked outside and had a bronzed or reddened, flushed skin tone because of it (Pastoreau, 158). Cinnabar represented the status of those who were fortunate enough to use it without having to be the ones to mine the deadly material.

COCHINEAL

Cochineal has a long history in the New World dating back to the second century BC. Also called “grana” by Roman Emperor Charles V, he highly requested that his conquistadors send him as much of the cochineal as they possibly could (Paul, 49). Because it was exotic and highly desirable, it was used only by the nobility, and so it came to symbolize royalty which is why only nobility could use the dye for their garments, accessories, and decor. The process to create cochineal was labor intensive: the dye was produced from the dried bodies of female beetles which were picked off of cacti that they were parasites to. The process also included waiting for the beetles to grow to “the size of a lentil,” harvested by slaves once they “grew plump in the sun,” and then dried in ovens or boiled in water (Paul, 49). Additionally, according to Aztec records, it took 70,000 beetles to create a pound of dye which was another reason it cost so much (Paul, 49). Once the bundles of cochineal were transported to Europe in large amounts, they were ground up and transformed into pigment and used for dye or lacquer. Because of its vibrancy, cochineal allowed painters to attain the perfect range of red pigments that was not obtainable through other red dyes such as kermes or madder (Pastoreau, 124). Cochineal was used to dye fabrics and create lacquers that symbolized wealth and royalty because of its exoticness from Mexico and South America and its price tag in the European markets.

This video shows how cochineal was ground up to use as red dye in many different countries around the world.

HISTORY

Where red was mined and produced in places like Mexico, Honduras, and Spain, it took on a significance to the people there as a symbol of economic stability and commercialization. The pigment created a stable flow of money into the country because it was such a commodity in Europe. Whereas in the places red pigment was exported to, the color took on a new significance. Not only did it signify the higher aspects of society (wealth, power, and sovereignty), it also signified not-as-impressive aspects (death and bloodshed). During the Middle Ages, prominent feudal figures such as dukes, barons, and representatives of the king would wear red which displayed their ties to the throne and they would go so far as to prohibit common people from wearing or using red objects in order to keep it exclusive. (Pastoreau, 71). Additionally, emperors and kings would wear main pieces of clothing dyed red which was emblematic of their imperial power, or use red in their insignias as a symbol of power and prestigious inheritance (Pastoreau, 71-72). The image below depicts the Roman emperor Charlemagne at his coronation on December 25, 800. Charlemagne dons a vibrant red cloak that essentially pops off the page which symbolizes his separation from other, lower people in the image and as he is being coronated, shows his imperial lineage.   

Imperial Coronation of Charlemagne, Friedrich Kalbach, 1861

Red took a turn toward decline during the Protestant Reformation when Martin Luther discouraged people from wearing red because it suggested overindulgence and indecency as people like Judas, the betrayer of Jesus, is depicted with red hair (Pastoreau, 94). Judas’ red hair is the main characteristic that separates Judas apart from the other disciples, signaling the apparent negative connotation brought about by his red hair.  

Betrayal of Christ, Caspar Isenmann, Date Unknown

Despite the change in symbolism for red between the Middle Ages and the Protestant Reformation, the color red continues to signify notions of power, royalty, and high economic standing in society. Because of red pigment’s dangerous and labor intensive origins, the color was used only by nobility in Europe, Mexico, and Central America. The exclusivity of red became a status symbol that demarcated the various classes of society. Red later made an appearance in makeup and accessories that also symbolized riches and high-class. Wherever red is seen in history, it represents power and the position of the people who wear and use it.

Works Cited

Pastoreau, Michel, and Jody Gladding. Red: The History of a Color. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2017.

Paul, Stella. Chromaphilia: The Story of Colour in Art. London: Phaidon, 2017.

-Madeline Quan